UIr-Fascism by Umberto Eco

On the 25th of April 1995, Umberto Eco delivered a speech with the title “Ur-fascism” at Columbia University, commemorating the liberation of Europe. Shortly after, it was published in The New York Review of Books. The text was conceived for an audience of American students and the speech was given during a time of heightened awareness of right-wing extremism, following the Oklahoma City bombing. Eco tailored his message for this context, linking anti-Fascist themes to contemporary issues, urging reflection on the dangers of resurgent totalitarian ideologies across the world.

In the text, Eco highlights the enduring and adaptable nature of fascism, which can appear in various forms without a strict ideology. Eco identifies 14 characteristics of what he terms "Ur-Fascism" or “eternal fascism”, a set of traits that cannot be regimented into a system, many of which are mutually exclusive and are typical of other forms of despotism or fanaticism. But all you need is one of them to be present, and a Fascist nebula will begin to coagulate. Here they are, in summary:

1. Cult of Tradition
   Fascism glorifies tradition, combining diverse, often contradictory elements into a single mythic past. This reliance on the past resists change and rational progress, promoting the belief that all truth has already been revealed. 

2. Rejection of Modernism
   Ur-Fascism sees Enlightenment values—rationalism, skepticism, and individualism—as corruptions of society. Though it may appear modern on the surface, fascism seeks to undo the intellectual and social advancements of modernity.

3. Action for Action’s Sake
   Fascists glorify action without thought. For them, reflection or hesitation is a weakness, and physical action is seen as inherently virtuous, fostering a culture of violence and immediate responses.

4. Disagreement is Treason
   Critical thinking and questioning are viewed as betrayal. Fascist ideology demands loyalty and submission, presenting any dissent as dangerous opposition to the collective unity.

5. Fear of Difference
   Ur-Fascism thrives on the fear of "others," exploiting anxieties about race, ethnicity, religion, or sexuality. Fascism builds its identity by defining enemies and positioning itself as the defender of purity.

6. Appeal to a Frustrated Middle Class
   Fascism targets a disillusioned middle class suffering from economic instability or political discontent, often promising to restore their lost status and identity by attacking perceived threats from both the elite and lower classes.

7. Obsession with a Plot
   Conspiracy theories are a staple of Ur-Fascism, fueling paranoia and a sense of being constantly under siege. Whether the "enemy" is internal or external, the fascist regime thrives on the notion of an omnipresent threat.

8. Enemies are Both Strong and Weak
   Fascism portrays its enemies as simultaneously overwhelming and weak. The enemy is powerful enough to threaten society, yet weak enough to be easily defeated, allowing fascism to justify its aggression.

9. Life is Permanent Warfare
   Fascism presents life as a continuous struggle, glorifying conflict and war as necessary for survival. Peace is undesirable because it undermines the fascist narrative of eternal battle against enemies.

10. Contempt for the Weak
    In fascist ideology, strength is celebrated, and weakness is despised. The strong are worthy of power, while the weak deserve their plight, reinforcing a hierarchical social order based on superiority.

11. Cult of Heroism
    Ur-Fascism idolizes the heroic death, promoting martyrdom and the sacrifice of life for the cause. In this worldview, heroism is not an exception but an expectation, with individuals urged to die for the nation or leader.

12. Machismo and Weaponry
    Fascist regimes glorify hyper-masculinity, with an emphasis on military prowess and physical domination. This machismo extends to weaponry, where violence becomes a surrogate for sexual power and authority.

13. Selective Populism
    Fascism claims to represent "the people" but only a specific, pure section. It manipulates the masses through emotional appeals while rejecting pluralism and the complexities of democracy, often through charismatic leadership.

14. Newspeak
    Fascist regimes simplify language to prevent critical thought. By reducing vocabulary and controlling discourse, they limit the tools for reasoning and debate, ensuring that the populace remains docile and uncritical.

He concludes the essay by pointing out that ur-fascism is still around us, sometimes in civilian clothes, and can return in the most innocent of guises. Our duty is to unmask it and to point the finger at each of its new forms - every day, in every part of the world. Freedom and liberation are never-ending tasks -- and this should not be forgotten.